The article deals with the representation of the collective historical memory in runic writing. In the 5th – 7th centuries runic inscriptions on stone monuments start to mention public events, such as the death of a chieftain or public sacrifice, preserving thus the historical memory about it. The texts include only ‘keys’ that actualize the memory, a personal name first of all. The emergence of the memorative function changes attitudes to the monuments. They become public value that is protected by spells against anyone who harms the monument. A memorial formula opens with the ‘key’ to the historical memory – the name of the remembered person. In the 9th to 11th centuries the memorial formula is further transformed: it now opens with the names of those who ordered the monument, then follows the statement about its erection, the name of the deceased and his relationship in kinship with the customer(s). The transfer of the emphasis to the customers points to the importance of preserving information on their relationship, probably to confirm their inheritance rights. The glorification of the deceased and making the genealogical information public, however, do not remain events of public concern. The memorative function of runic monuments thus declines, they represent a family and not collective historical memory. Later runic writing loses its memorative function altogether; it becomes the means of communication between individuals.

The article examines the phenomenon of alternation of tenses in the Icelandic sagas, or more precisely, the inclusion into a narrative of past events, as the sagas are, along with the normal forms of the past tense, forms of the so-called “present historical”. This practice is not an exclusive feature of the Old Icelandic language but is found in Indo-European languages of different historical eras and geographical locations. Saga scholars, whose works are discussed here, have paid much attention to this phenomenon and put forward numerous interpretations of this narrative mode, both grammatical and stylistic. The author of the article adheres to the view that the alternation of tenses was so extensively used by the saga authors because it enabled them, within the framework of the stylistic objectivity inherent in the saga genre, to make the narrative more lively and emotional, as if the events described were happening before the eyes of their listeners/readers.

Despite the uniformity of the main body of the Icelandic Landnámabók the þáttr about Ásólfr alskik, a hermit of the initial period of the settlement of the island, varies greatly in its early redactions. In the manuscript Sturlubók, Ásólfr’s voluntary life as a hermit is motivated by his reluctance to have contact his pagan neighbours, and the miracles he performs are open to rational interpretation. In addition, this redaction does not emphasise Ásólfr’s nationality at all. A completely different picture is presented by the second redaction, Hauksbók. The text of the þáttr here is about three times longer. In particular, additional posthumous miracles and prophetic dreams led to the discovery of the hermit’s relics and their transfer to the church. Ásólfr’s family ties are specified in detail, and his Celtic roots are especially noted. Analysis of this version clearly demonstrates how important the role of Celtic and AngloSaxon Christianity was in the Christianisation of Iceland. This is probably why, according to the Hauksbók version, the text of Ásólfs þáttr is reproduced in all subsequent redactions of Landnámabók.

The article analyses the functional characteristics of the main genres of skaldic poetry: panegyric verse, memorial poems (erfidrápur), shield poems (skjaldardrápur), head-ransom verse (höfuðlausn), love poetry (mansöngr) and libellous poems (níð). Olga Freidenberg’s conception of the salvational and chthonic functions of the word is applied to the genres of skaldic poetry which are discussed in the paper. Skaldic libellous verse (níð), rooted in rune magic, is endowed with a chthonic function, whereas head-ransoms characterised by autonominative, equitemporal semantics, acquire a salvational role. The salvational role of head-ransoms (höfuðlausn) is ensured by the use of auto-referential semantics (when the speech act is directed not at the addressee but at the creator of the poem himself), of performative formulas and of a hyper-structuralised form – runhent meter with final rhyme overloaded with sound devices. The pragmatic function of love poems (mansöngr) is determined by their intended influence on the addressee: they serve to manipulate the addressee’s mentality and behaviour, ensuring the performance of a particular action (granting favour to a skald). Erfidrápur are endowed not only with a memorial function but also with a life-affirming role, conditioned by the idea of familial renewal and vitality. The function of skaldic shield poems (skjaldardrápur) is dissociated in the article from descriptive visual imagery of material objects. It is argued in the paper that shield poems function as thesauri of mythological kennings: their poetic form facilitates the process of memorising kennings, and their prose context provides explanations and motivates their usage. Ragnarsdrápa, which alludes to, rather than describes, mythological scenes of Þorr’s fishing for Jǫrmungandr, Hamðir and Sǫrli, taking revenge on Jǫrmunrekkr, and the never-ending battle between Heðin and Hǫgni, is not descriptive, or narrative, or intentionally communicative. The marginality of the communicative function of skaldic poetry is conditioned by violation of direct word-order, the use of parataxis, which obscures the syntactic structure of a stanza, of kennings with their informative deficiency, of inserted and interlaced clauses, breaking the semantic organisation of a half-stanza, and of increased significance of sound repetitions, which is characteristic of magic and ritual.

This comparative study of Italian medieval pilgrim’s journals and Russian khozheniya (medieval travelogues) shows, on the one hand, their genre similarities. They have comparable practical information: indication of route, distances, time and means of travel; comparable description of holy places and objects; and comparable accounts of local customs, natural environment, adventures and dangers. They are also written in similar styles, combining a documentary approach with religious emotion. On the other hand, the article demonstrates the differences in the perception of reality by Western and Russian pilgrims: the former are more rational and take as much interest in the secular world as in spiritual matters; the latter focus more on the inner experience of the encounter with the sacred and on recognition of their own sinfulness. European pilgrims are more open to the world, while their Russian counterparts look inwards into their hearts, where they seek to meet God. Such differences result from the contrasting historical and spiritual contexts of the authors’ lives.

The article explores historical and semiotic aspects of the little black dress. The little black dress (LBD) is interpreted in the frame of Bohemian artistic style and further developments in 20th century fashion. The analysis starts with the little black dress designed by Gabriel Chanel in 1926, but the point of origin for historical reference is the European tradition of mourning dress of the 19th century, that determined the cultural symbolism of the color black. The semiotics of the little black dress is newly defined through the culture of minimalism of 1920s. The article traces the connection between the design of the little black dress and the sartorial tradition of the Great Male Renunciation: sacrificing the decorative for the functional; emphasizing comfort, freedom of movement, and the individuality of the wearer. The minimalism of the little black dress is balanced by the use of accessories. In conclusion we discuss the contemporary role of the little black dress as women’s uniform. Throughout, the article aims to demonstrate the variability of cultural functions of the little black dress, depending on the historical context.